COMMUNICATION ACROSS CULTURE
Codes Uses in Communication Convey Difference Meaning Perspective According to Cultural Background of Its Speaker
1. INTRODUCTION
All communication is cultural -- it draws on ways we have learned to speak and give nonverbal messages. We do not always communicate the same way from day to day, since factors like context, individual personality, and mood interact with the variety of cultural influences we have internalized that influence our choices.
1.1 Phenomenon
Communication is interactive, so an important influence on its effectiveness is our relationship with others. Do they hear and understand what we are trying to say? Are they listening well? Are we listening well in response? Do their responses show that they understand the words and the meanings behind the words we have chosen? Is the mood positive and receptive? Is there trust between them and us? Are there differences that relate to ineffective communication, divergent goals or interests, or fundamentally different ways of seeing the world? The answers to these questions will give us some clues about the effectiveness of our communication and the ease with which we may be able to move through conflict.
So, in the communication it is not just an act of transferring meaning via codes that the speakers use to communicate, but it is also convey cultural transfer. Because the meaning are in the speakers who use it, and its mean that in every language the meaning is the same but how they expressed the meaning are different. No matter what kinds of codes that they use the meaning that they use will always be influenced by the culture around him/her selves. Meaning is always the same in every people or language but the meaning sense is different according to their cultural background.
1.2 Theoretical Basis
As have mentioned before that all communication are cultural. It draws on ways we have learned to speak and give nonverbal messages. We do not always communicate the same way from day to day, since factors like context, individual personality, and mood interact with the variety of cultural influences we have internalized that influence our choices. "Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together.
According to Marcelle E. DuPraw and Marya Axner (1997) Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, "culture" refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as gender, race, or national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly, we realize we all belong to many cultures at once.
Our histories are a critical piece of our cultures. Historical experiences -- whether of five years ago or of ten generations back -- shape who we are. Knowledge of our history can help us understand ourselves and one another better. Exploring the ways in which various groups within our society have related to each other is key to opening channels for cross-cultural communication.
Further more they also mentioned that there are six fundamental patterns of cultural differences -- ways in which cultures, as a whole, tend to vary from one another -- are described below. The descriptions point out some of the recurring causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties. As you enter into multicultural dialogue or collaboration, keep these generalized differences in mind. Next time you find yourself in a confusing situation, and you suspect that cross-cultural differences are at play, try reviewing this list. Ask yourself how culture may be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world from others' points of view.
1. Different Communication Styles
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some black, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or non-white racial groups.
2. Different Attitudes toward Conflict
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.
3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks
From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.
4. Different Decision-Making Styles
The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.
5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
6. Different Approaches to Knowing
Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is, the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence.
Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously overlooked ways of knowing. Indeed, these different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.
In communication of course we need a language. Language it selves is a mean of communication that contained with list of words and its world structure (grammar, syntax, etc) that represent the meaning. According to Brown and Yule as cited by Helen in her book Culturally Speaking (2000:2) there are two main function of language:
1. The Transactional (or information-transfering) function
2. The Interactional (or maintenance of social relationships) function
The goal of transactional language is to convey information coherence and accuracy, whereas the goal of international speech is to communicate friendliness and good will, and to make the participants feel comfortable and unthreatened.
In communication always involve social situation as well as its cultural identity inside of it. That is way in a multi cultural community the communication will convey different cultural aspect in regard to the cultural background of the speaker.
2. Discussion
As already mentioned before, in case of communicating in a multi cultural situation will always conveyed the differences in regard of the cultural background of the speaker who use the language, even though they are used the same language but their meaning perspective/sense will be influence by their cultural background. That is way we should be aware to interpret the message as well as to speak in communication across culture, otherwise, we will be misunderstanding.
Because in communication across-cultural sometime what is ‘do’ and what is ‘don’t’ are rather a vague. So, what is ‘do’ in our cultural perspective it would be ‘don’t’ in another cultural perspective and vise versa. For example, it quit common in regard of the interactional function of language as in Balinese cultural perspective to asking about such question as “where are you going”, “How many children do you have?”, etc. but it will be mean something rude or impolite question to be asked in another cultural perspective.
Why that the cultural background influence the meaning of it speaker? These several examples may answer this question. For example; a kind of vegetable that we in Bali familiar with ‘Jepang’, it is a kind of potato species. For both people in Denpasar and Singaraja knew very well about this kind of vegetable and they both refer this kind of fruit by the same name ‘Jepang’. In the era before 90th the People who are originally born and live in Denpasar if we mention about this kind of vegetable they will understand it as a kind of vegetable that it can be serve as a delicious vegetable for food. Meanwhile, for the people who are originally born and live in Singaraja only understand that kind of vegetable as only for a pig food. So what will be happen if the people in Denpasar invites the people from Singaraja to come to their house and treat them to have lunch by this kind of vegetable? And how about if the people in Denpasar invited to come to Singaraja and they see that the people in Singaraja are use this kind of vegetable as pig food.
Another example about the culture perspective affected the meaning sense of a word we can see it in the world ‘dog’ to refer somebody among the people in Singaraja which mean ‘mate/close friend’. This world is familiar and quite common that mean nothing sense rudeness. But it would be meaning different if we use this kind of world to refer somebody outside Singaraja even though we still use the same language. Or word that mean hungry in Balinese ‘seduk basange’ and ‘layah basange’. For those people that who are live and originally from seraya village the much prefer to say ‘layah basange’ instead of ‘seduk basange’ which mean that more acceptable and polite in the same social status of the speaker him/her selves than that last words ‘seduk basange’. But it would be mean so rude/rough if we say this word in Gianyar or in Denpasar.
As Linda Lantieri and Janet Patti (Beacon Press, 1996) mentioned that we all communicate with others all the time -- in our homes, in our workplaces, in the groups we belong to, and in the community. No matter how well we think we understand each other, communication is hard. Just think, for example, how often we hear things like, "He doesn't get it," or "She didn't really hear what I meant to say." "Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together.
Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, "culture" refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as gender, race, or national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly, we realize we all belong to many cultures at once.
3. Conclusion
Culture is one of the powerful forces that acts on us that affecting our behavior, perspective of meaning, point of view, etc. in other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we express ourselves.
As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together, cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that so irritated. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others.
The key to effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. First, it is essential that people understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication, and makes a conscious effort to overcome these problems. Second, it is important to assume that one’s efforts will not always be successful, and adjust one’s behavior appropriately. For example, one should always assume that there is a significant possibility that cultural differences are causing communication problems, and be willing to be patient and forgiving, rather than hostile and aggressive, if problems develop. When things seem to be going badly, stop or slow down and think. What could be going on here? Is it possible I misinterpreted what they said, or they misinterpreted me? Often misinterpretation is the source of the problem.
Active listening can sometimes be used to check this out–by repeating what one thinks he or she heard, one can confirm that one understands the communication accurately. If words are used differently between languages or cultural groups, however, even active listening can overlook misunderstandings.
So, there is one way to avoid the misunderstanding in cross-cultural communication is by the awareness and understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.
Bibliography
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication-32k-
www.beyondinteractibility.org/essay/cross-cultural_communication
Boski, Pawel et al. 2002. NEW DIRECTIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Selected Papers from the Fifteenth International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. Polan: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN Warszawa.
Spenser-Oatey, Helen. 2000. Culturally Speaking Managing Rapport through Talk across Cultures. New York: CONTINUUM
Codes Uses in Communication Convey Difference Meaning Perspective According to Cultural Background of Its Speaker
1. INTRODUCTION
All communication is cultural -- it draws on ways we have learned to speak and give nonverbal messages. We do not always communicate the same way from day to day, since factors like context, individual personality, and mood interact with the variety of cultural influences we have internalized that influence our choices.
1.1 Phenomenon
Communication is interactive, so an important influence on its effectiveness is our relationship with others. Do they hear and understand what we are trying to say? Are they listening well? Are we listening well in response? Do their responses show that they understand the words and the meanings behind the words we have chosen? Is the mood positive and receptive? Is there trust between them and us? Are there differences that relate to ineffective communication, divergent goals or interests, or fundamentally different ways of seeing the world? The answers to these questions will give us some clues about the effectiveness of our communication and the ease with which we may be able to move through conflict.
So, in the communication it is not just an act of transferring meaning via codes that the speakers use to communicate, but it is also convey cultural transfer. Because the meaning are in the speakers who use it, and its mean that in every language the meaning is the same but how they expressed the meaning are different. No matter what kinds of codes that they use the meaning that they use will always be influenced by the culture around him/her selves. Meaning is always the same in every people or language but the meaning sense is different according to their cultural background.
1.2 Theoretical Basis
As have mentioned before that all communication are cultural. It draws on ways we have learned to speak and give nonverbal messages. We do not always communicate the same way from day to day, since factors like context, individual personality, and mood interact with the variety of cultural influences we have internalized that influence our choices. "Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together.
According to Marcelle E. DuPraw and Marya Axner (1997) Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, "culture" refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as gender, race, or national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly, we realize we all belong to many cultures at once.
Our histories are a critical piece of our cultures. Historical experiences -- whether of five years ago or of ten generations back -- shape who we are. Knowledge of our history can help us understand ourselves and one another better. Exploring the ways in which various groups within our society have related to each other is key to opening channels for cross-cultural communication.
Further more they also mentioned that there are six fundamental patterns of cultural differences -- ways in which cultures, as a whole, tend to vary from one another -- are described below. The descriptions point out some of the recurring causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties. As you enter into multicultural dialogue or collaboration, keep these generalized differences in mind. Next time you find yourself in a confusing situation, and you suspect that cross-cultural differences are at play, try reviewing this list. Ask yourself how culture may be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world from others' points of view.
1. Different Communication Styles
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some black, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or non-white racial groups.
2. Different Attitudes toward Conflict
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.
3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks
From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.
4. Different Decision-Making Styles
The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.
5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
6. Different Approaches to Knowing
Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is, the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence.
Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously overlooked ways of knowing. Indeed, these different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.
In communication of course we need a language. Language it selves is a mean of communication that contained with list of words and its world structure (grammar, syntax, etc) that represent the meaning. According to Brown and Yule as cited by Helen in her book Culturally Speaking (2000:2) there are two main function of language:
1. The Transactional (or information-transfering) function
2. The Interactional (or maintenance of social relationships) function
The goal of transactional language is to convey information coherence and accuracy, whereas the goal of international speech is to communicate friendliness and good will, and to make the participants feel comfortable and unthreatened.
In communication always involve social situation as well as its cultural identity inside of it. That is way in a multi cultural community the communication will convey different cultural aspect in regard to the cultural background of the speaker.
2. Discussion
As already mentioned before, in case of communicating in a multi cultural situation will always conveyed the differences in regard of the cultural background of the speaker who use the language, even though they are used the same language but their meaning perspective/sense will be influence by their cultural background. That is way we should be aware to interpret the message as well as to speak in communication across culture, otherwise, we will be misunderstanding.
Because in communication across-cultural sometime what is ‘do’ and what is ‘don’t’ are rather a vague. So, what is ‘do’ in our cultural perspective it would be ‘don’t’ in another cultural perspective and vise versa. For example, it quit common in regard of the interactional function of language as in Balinese cultural perspective to asking about such question as “where are you going”, “How many children do you have?”, etc. but it will be mean something rude or impolite question to be asked in another cultural perspective.
Why that the cultural background influence the meaning of it speaker? These several examples may answer this question. For example; a kind of vegetable that we in Bali familiar with ‘Jepang’, it is a kind of potato species. For both people in Denpasar and Singaraja knew very well about this kind of vegetable and they both refer this kind of fruit by the same name ‘Jepang’. In the era before 90th the People who are originally born and live in Denpasar if we mention about this kind of vegetable they will understand it as a kind of vegetable that it can be serve as a delicious vegetable for food. Meanwhile, for the people who are originally born and live in Singaraja only understand that kind of vegetable as only for a pig food. So what will be happen if the people in Denpasar invites the people from Singaraja to come to their house and treat them to have lunch by this kind of vegetable? And how about if the people in Denpasar invited to come to Singaraja and they see that the people in Singaraja are use this kind of vegetable as pig food.
Another example about the culture perspective affected the meaning sense of a word we can see it in the world ‘dog’ to refer somebody among the people in Singaraja which mean ‘mate/close friend’. This world is familiar and quite common that mean nothing sense rudeness. But it would be meaning different if we use this kind of world to refer somebody outside Singaraja even though we still use the same language. Or word that mean hungry in Balinese ‘seduk basange’ and ‘layah basange’. For those people that who are live and originally from seraya village the much prefer to say ‘layah basange’ instead of ‘seduk basange’ which mean that more acceptable and polite in the same social status of the speaker him/her selves than that last words ‘seduk basange’. But it would be mean so rude/rough if we say this word in Gianyar or in Denpasar.
As Linda Lantieri and Janet Patti (Beacon Press, 1996) mentioned that we all communicate with others all the time -- in our homes, in our workplaces, in the groups we belong to, and in the community. No matter how well we think we understand each other, communication is hard. Just think, for example, how often we hear things like, "He doesn't get it," or "She didn't really hear what I meant to say." "Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together.
Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, "culture" refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as gender, race, or national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly, we realize we all belong to many cultures at once.
3. Conclusion
Culture is one of the powerful forces that acts on us that affecting our behavior, perspective of meaning, point of view, etc. in other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we express ourselves.
As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together, cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that so irritated. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others.
The key to effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. First, it is essential that people understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication, and makes a conscious effort to overcome these problems. Second, it is important to assume that one’s efforts will not always be successful, and adjust one’s behavior appropriately. For example, one should always assume that there is a significant possibility that cultural differences are causing communication problems, and be willing to be patient and forgiving, rather than hostile and aggressive, if problems develop. When things seem to be going badly, stop or slow down and think. What could be going on here? Is it possible I misinterpreted what they said, or they misinterpreted me? Often misinterpretation is the source of the problem.
Active listening can sometimes be used to check this out–by repeating what one thinks he or she heard, one can confirm that one understands the communication accurately. If words are used differently between languages or cultural groups, however, even active listening can overlook misunderstandings.
So, there is one way to avoid the misunderstanding in cross-cultural communication is by the awareness and understand the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.
Bibliography
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication-32k-
www.beyondinteractibility.org/essay/cross-cultural_communication
Boski, Pawel et al. 2002. NEW DIRECTIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Selected Papers from the Fifteenth International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. Polan: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN Warszawa.
Spenser-Oatey, Helen. 2000. Culturally Speaking Managing Rapport through Talk across Cultures. New York: CONTINUUM
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar